如何通过php函数优化数据库查询性能？

$stmt = $pdo->prepare("SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = :id");
$stmt->bindParam(':id', $id);
$stmt->execute();
$result = $stmt->fetchAll();

$pdo->query("CREATE INDEX idx_username ON users (username)");

$stmt = $pdo->prepare("SELECT users.username, orders.total FROM users JOIN orders ON users.id = orders.user_id WHERE users.id = :id");
$stmt->bindParam(':id', $id);
$stmt->execute();
$result = $stmt->fetchAll();

$stmt = $pdo->prepare("SELECT * FROM users LIMIT :limit OFFSET :offset");
$stmt->bindParam(':limit', $limit, PDO::PARAM_INT);
$stmt->bindParam(':offset', $offset, PDO::PARAM_INT);
$stmt->execute();
$result = $stmt->fetchAll();

if ($result = $cache->get('users')) {
    // 缓存命中
    return $result;
} else {
    $stmt = $pdo->prepare("SELECT * FROM users");
    $stmt->execute();
    $result = $stmt->fetchAll();
    $cache->set('users', $result);
    return $result;
}